Times Arrow, Times Cycle ( Stephen Jay Gould ) free essay sample

Surveys chip away at advancement of geologists comprehension of the idea of profound time in seventeenth Cent.- nineteenth Cent. In Times Arrow, Times Cycle, Stephen Jay Gould talks about the advancement of geologists comprehension of the idea of profound time. Gould contemplated messages by Thomas Burnet, James Hutton, and Charles Lyellthree logical essayists who moved toward this inquiry in the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth hundreds of years. Customarily, readings of these three essayists would in general spotlight on how much each man utilized the logical technique in researching the subject of the Earths age. The more prominent the researchers reliance on logical technique, the students of history contemplated, the closer he went to reality. Consequently, these researchers have frequently been positioned, and comprehended, based on their adherence to guidelines that are natural to the twentieth century, yet were all the while advancing when they composed. Over the span of his rehashed close readings of the writings, where. We will compose a custom exposition test on Times Arrow, Times Cycle ( Stephen Jay Gould ) or on the other hand any comparative subject explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page .

Marketing Magazine Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Promoting Magazine - Research Paper Example These two developments make up the entire BtoB Magazine undertaking giving important data to its customer base both in print and on the web. Media Magazine is labeled as an instrument to associate promoting authorities with the most exceptional game-changing methodologies got from the most recent examinations and investigations. The magazine is distributed month to month where â€Å"Every issue is loaded up with the game-changing procedures and strategies B2B advertisers need to surpass. Each page and pixel is stuffed with substance - news, cases, extraordinary reports, innovations, benchmarks, best practices - served up by the most educated B2B advertising writers to ever work this prospering beat† (in the same place.). This additionally has its electronic release where customers can buy in a flash. Its online media is rising as the most practical of every one of its items with the incorporation of its online form beside print, webcasts by its program of writers, sites refres hed day by day, e-pamphlets and online articles among other. The magazine’s current issue highlights BtoB’s Best for 2011, a yearly commencement of the best in the business. The rundown incorporates the best advertisers and officials who had the option to make progress in their battles as picked by the editors. Each discharge contains articles customized to profit today’s CMOs. ... BtoBonline.com interfaces top-level advertisers to the information and data that they need. This offers day by day news, exceptional reports, vertical showcasing, schedules and media occasions, registry of advertising merchants, and the articles contained in their Media Business. Their media pack likewise incorporates Media Business, E-bulletins and occasions just as their distributed rates for BtoB on the web. Tests for the size and where the notices might be situated inside the page are given in their downloadable record in Acrobat Reader position. The situation of the promotions can be seen at the highest point of the landing page for Summit Media Group during the visit, a vertical advertisement on the privilege by Equifax, corresponding to it is for AT&T and a littler square box for mardevdm2.com at the base. For landing page promoting in open CPM of 728x90 their cost is $115, 300x250 is as of now same cost while 160x600 is $125. For Run-of-site in open CPM of 728x90 the cost is $110, 300x250 additionally a similar cost and for 160x600 it’s $120. Detour takeover or what is basically a spring up 640x480 the valuing is somewhat extraordinary with the expense contingent upon the day or all out number days. For an entire week, a promoter should dish out $6,000, on Mondays $2,750, Tuesdays $2,500, Wednesdays $2,250, Thursdays $2,000, Fridays $1,500 and for quite a long time its $1,000. There are additionally White Papers where on the BtoB Site there is an immediate channel that will connect the white papers to showcasing administrators by adding one’s white paper to their on location library. This in like manner empowers the publicist to recover the total contact data of the individuals who download their white paper permitting discussions. The one month program is estimated Index and

Cover Trend That One Serif Font

Cover Trend That One Serif Font I love me a good book cover trend. This is one youve seen everywhere. Its similar to the big cover trend of 2018, outlined by Literary Hub, but with one tweak. Instead of a big, bold sans-serif font on a vibrant background, these have a serif font on a solid background. Simple. Gorgeous. Its a good trend, Brent. The majority of the books with this treatment are non-fiction by and about white women, with a few exceptions. If you flip through a list of feminist works of 2018, a good chunk of them will fit this cover trend. I guess its a ~girly~ look? Its also the go-to font for a lot of fashion blogs right now. It seems like the trend got started in 2017, with these two: The Girl in the Show: Three Generations of Comedy, Culture, Feminism by Anna Fields Sex Rage by Eve Babitz But THEN 2018 happened, and, hoo boy, have we got a lot of them. Lets take a gander. Also, sorry (not sorry) in advance, but you will be finding this cover trend everywhere now. Black Swans by Eve Babitz Conscience: A Novel by Alice Mattison The Dakota Winters by Tom Barbash Dead Girls: Essays on Surviving an American Obsession by Alice Bolin Dictionary Stories: Short Fictions and Other Findings by Jez Burrows Feminasty: The Complicated Womans Guide to Surviving the Patriarchy Without Drinking Herself to Death by Erin Gibson From the Corner of the Oval by Beck Dorey-Stein Horse: A Novel by Talley English MI5 and Me: A Coronet Among the Spooks by Charlotte Bingham Man with a Seagull on His Head by Harriet Paige Penis Envy and Other Bad Feelings: The Emotional Costs of Everyday Life by Mari Ruti Putney by Sofka Zinovieff She Called Me Woman: Nigerias Queer Women Speak, edited by Azeenarh Mohammed, Chitra Nagarajan, ?Aisha Salau Small Fry by Lisa Brennan-Jobs Someone Has Led This Child to Believe: A Memoir by Regina Louise Tell Me Lies by Carola Lovering Unwifeable: A Memoir by Mandy Stadtmiller Note that I *do* work in book design, but Im not, like, super savvy in the world of typefaces, so dont @ me about these not all being exactly Bodoni Old Style Bold. THEYRE CLOSE. Other book trends this year: floral fiction, ultra violet YA, and the art of YA book titles.

What Is a Montessori School

Montessori schools follow the philosophy of Dr. Maria Montessori, Italys first female doctor who dedicated her life to discovering more about how children learn. Today, there are Montessori schools around the world. Heres more about Dr. Montessori and the Montessori Method based on her teachings. More About Maria Montessori Dr. Montessori (1870-1952) studied medicine at the University of Rome  and graduated, despite harassment over her gender. After graduating, she became involved with the study of children with mental disabilities and read widely in the field of education. She later helped to direct a school to train teachers to work with mentally disabled children. The school won acclaim from authorities for its compassionate and scientific care of children. After studying philosophy (which we would today recognize as closer to the field of psychology), she was involved in 1907 in opening Casa dei Bambini, a school for the children of working parents in the Roman slum of San Lorenzo. She helped to direct this school but did not teach the children directly. In this school, she developed many of the methods that became the core of her educational Montessori Method, including using light, child-sized furniture that the children could move as they liked, and using her materials instead of traditional toys. In addition, she asked the children to take care of many practical activities, such as sweeping, caring for pets, and cooking. She noticed that over time, children left to explore and play on their own developed self-initiative and self-discipline. Montessoris methods became so popular that schools based on her methodology spread across Europe and the world. The first American school based on the Montessori Method opened in Tarrytown, New York, in 1911. Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone, was a huge proponent of the Montessori Method, and he and his wife opened a school in their home in Canada. Dr. Montessori wrote many books about her educational methods, including The Montessori Method (1916), and she opened training centers for teachers around the world. In later years, she was also an advocate of pacifism. What is the Montessori Method Like Today? There are currently over 20,000 Montessori schools around the world, which educate children from birth to age 18. Most of the schools serve young children from about age 2 or 2.5 years to age 5 or 6. The schools that use the name Montessori in their titles vary with regard to how strictly they adhere to Montessori methods, so parents should be sure to research the schools methods carefully before enrolling their children. There is some controversy in the Montessori community about what constitutes a Montessori school. The American Montessori Society keeps a list of schools and teacher training programs. Montessori schools intend to foster the creativity of their students by encouraging them to play independently. Students often can choose what to play with, and they interact with Montessori materials rather than with traditional toys. Through discovery rather than direct instruction, they work to develop independence, self-reliance, and confidence. Usually, classrooms have child-size furniture, and the materials are placed on shelves where the children can reach them. Teachers often introduce the materials, and then children can choose when to use them. Montessori materials are often practical in nature and include pitchers from which to measure, natural materials such as shells, and puzzles and blocks. The materials are often constructed from wood or textiles. The materials also help children develop skills such as fastening buttons, measuring, and building, and they are designed to help the children master these skills over time through their own self-directed practice. In addition, children are usually taught in mixed-aged classrooms so that older children can help nurture and teach younger children, thereby increasing the older childrens self-confidence. The same teacher generally stays with children for their entire time in one grouping, and therefore the teachers get to know the students very well and help guide their learning. Article  edited by  Stacy Jagodowski

Causes and Effects of Watershed Degradation - 7239 Words

USING SUITABLE EXAMPLES FROM KENYA, EXAMINE THE CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF WATERSHED DEGRADATION AND SUGGEST POSSIBLE INTERVENTION MEASURES TABLE OF CONTENTS CAUSES, EFFECTS AND SOLUTIONS TO WATERSHED DEGRADATION PREAMBLE Page 4 1. INTRODUCTION Page 4 - 6 2. Causes of Watershed Degradation Page 7 2.1 Land degradation 7 - 8 2.2 Deforestation 8 2.3 Removal of vegetation 8 2.4 Shifting cultivation without adequate fallow periods 9 2.5 Overgrazing 9 2.6 Poor farming methods 9 - 10 2.7 Cultivation of marginal lands 10 - 11 2.8 Improper crop rotations 11 2.9 Unbalanced fertilizer use 11 2.10 Pests and diseases 11 3. Underlying causes†¦show more content†¦But a watershed is more than a collection of streams and adjacent land areas--it is a natural resource system in which humans and other organisms interact with the land and its associated resources for sustenance, shelter, and security. The physical condition of a watershed, therefore, directly affects the health and well being of natural and social systems within its divides and indirectly affects those systems beyond its divides. Degradation of a watershed can have various forms: depletion of water resources, soil erosion and land degradation, impoverishment of the vegetative cover, and damage to the infrastructure. Land degradation is responsible for reduction of the vegetation cover. It can be caused by inadequate land management, overexploitation, and reduced soil fertility, but also by climatic factors. A poor vegetation cover leads to a reduced infiltration rate of the water into the soil and to a loss of water through surface runoff. Surface runoff is one of the reasons for the depletion of water resources on the one hand and for soil erosion on the other hand. Most of the surface runoff is not controlled or effectively used and so lost for the community. In order to profit from the rainwater it has either to infiltrate into the soil and be available for crop production or be intercepted and actively used forShow MoreRelatedProblem Statement Versus Needs Assesment1384 Words   |  6 Pagesof what is cu rrently a problem or an enhancement of a need to be added to a current situation. For example, let’s look at a fictitious rural community facing a particular environmental situation. The federal public land manager in charge of a watershed surrounding the small, rural community of Cottonwood Creek brings a partnership of local stakeholders together worried about the namesake stream that flowed through their town of 4,000 people. The meeting includes representatives from the power generationRead MoreEffects Of Turbiridity Due On Land Use1498 Words   |  6 Pages1)Effects of turbiridity due to land use changes- †¢ Turbidity measures the amount of light scattered from a sample and more suspended particles causes more scattering results in high turbidity. †¢ Turbidity measurements are often used as indicator of water quality based on clarity and total suspended solid particles. Turbidity doesn’t include the dissolved solids which reduces the scattering. †¢ In agricultural lands the receiving water is contaminated by nonpoint pollution due to different agriculturalRead MoreWatershed Issues And Policies Of The Himalayan Region1434 Words   |  6 Pages Sharon Fighter Final Paper Watershed Issues and Policies in the Himalayan Region The Himalayan region provides water to more than 150 million people in the uplands and lowlands, and the water basins support 1.5 billion people who inhabit the area, and up to 3 billion people rely on the food and energy produced using the Himalayan watershed (1). The glaciers in the Himalayas deliver large quantities of runoff to the major tributaries of the Ganges and the rivers in the adjacent basins (2). TheseRead MoreThe Chesapeake Bay Is The Most Massive Estuary Of The United States Of America1746 Words   |  7 PagesINTRODUCTION The Chesapeake Bay is the most massive estuary in the United States of America. Spanning lengths over 300,000 meters, this it is a watershed that extends over six states, the District of Columbia, and meets the needs of over 15 million individuals. With its high rate of productivity, its economic and social importance to the surrounding areas, and its close proximity to the U.S. capital, the Chesapeake has the recipient of significant attention for quite some time(Boesch, Donald). OneRead MoreThe Effect Of Temperature And Dissolved Oxygen Concentration Associated With Wildfires1386 Words   |  6 Pagesladder fuels within forests across this region. Both of these factors are now contributing to more frequent and more extreme fires in recent years. These catastrophic fires cause significant changes to ground cover along stream corridors. The loss of ground cover significantly increases the amount of sediment entering watersheds, which can alter both temperature and dissolved oxygen levels throughout the system. The purpose of this paper is to examine the cha nges in water temperature and dissolvedRead MoreThe Effect Of Temperature And Dissolved Oxygen Concentration Associated With Wildfires1374 Words   |  6 Pagesladder fuels within forests across this region. Both of these factors are now contributing to more frequent and more extreme fires in recent years. These catastrophic fires cause significant changes to ground cover along stream corridors. The loss of ground cover significantly increases the amount of sediment entering watersheds, which can alter both temperature and dissolved oxygen levels throughout the system. The purpose of this paper is to examine the changes in water temperature and dissolvedRead MoreHow Do Minerals Affect Society? Minerals1679 Words   |  7 Pagesground to reach the mineral ore and then constructing horizontal shafts or tunnels to the mineral ore. The ore is the pumped onto the surface. Strip Mining: It involves stripping the surface layers of the earth so as to reveal the mineral ore 3. What effect does extracting minerals have on the environment? During underground mining processes the land may collapse causing the land above to sink. Again, during mining, the release of gases and dust seriously affect soil, water and air. Acid drainage fromRead MoreThe Effects Of Water Pollution On The Environment1269 Words   |  6 Pagesintroduction of harmful toxins in an aquatic food chain can result in high levels of contamination in fish, which can be harmful to humans who eat them. State and national agencies monitoring our waters is essential to understanding the effects of water degradation. Every state in the United States has developed standards for fish consumption advisories and restrictions to protect the population from potential health hazards, particularly recreational fishing (Lepak et al.,2009). By continually definingRead MoreEssay on The Genesee River Watershed1994 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction: The Genesee River Watershed. The Genesee River and its watershed is a major tributary to Lake Ontario. The river originates in the Allegheny Plateau in the town of Ulysses, Potter County, Pennsylvania, about fifteen miles south of the New York State border (GFLRPC, 2004). The river flows north through Allegheny, Livingston, and Monroe Counties and forming a portion of two borders between Livingston County and Wyoming or Monroe Counties. Letchworth State Park runs along the GeneseeRead MoreNigeri An Essential Requirement For Sustainable Agricultural Production Essay1393 Words   |  6 Pagesseason known as â€Å"August break†, which is usually experienced in the last two weeks of August. Degradation Nigeria is a developing country and the most populous country in Africa. There has been always the quest to feed the needy. There is freedom to almost everything in the country. Most of the laws governing the environment are nearly inactive. Thus, making the country to suffer soil degradation. Almost every Nigerian is a farmer and children are being taught agriculture both in primary and

New York MTA Free Essays

Traditional market structure suggests that all market decisions should be based on utilitarian theory. We often witness market decisions which neglect other important aspects of the market activity. As a result, we appear under the impact of one-side unbalanced decisions which ultimately neglect the principles of morality and moral theology of the marketplace. We will write a custom essay sample on New York MTA or any similar topic only for you Order Now Rising fares and tolls by MTA  Ã¢â‚¬Å"After an unusually vigorous and spirited debate, the board of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority voted to raise fares on subways, buses and commuter railroads and tolls on bridges and tunnels† (Chan, 2007a). Why is it so surprising that not all members of the MTA board wanted to turn into the proponents of fares and tolls’ increase? Does this mean that more and more political and business players realize the importance of morality in taking market decisions? Evidently, the situation is much worse than one may imagine. One may initially think that increasing the fares will lead to less traffic congestion, and will urge more people to use public transport; yet, the public transport fares are being raised, too. From the viewpoint of those who vote for raising fares and tolls in New York, this decision is the first step towards â€Å"fiscal responsibility. The authority had for long applied windfalls and real estate taxes hoping that someone would bail us out and turning a blind eye to our responsibility to put this MTA on a firm future monetary structure† (Chan, 2007a). Simultaneously, from the viewpoint of morality and theology of the marketplace, commercial activity is not limited by rational market decisions, but also â€Å"confronts us with the moral predicaments† (Gregg, 2004). The major concern within this situation is that the decision to raise fares has completely neglected the position of those whom we traditionally consider to be vulnerable populations. The representative of Working Families Party is confident that raising fares will seriously hit working people (Benjamin, 2007). â€Å"Today, once again middle class New Yorkers and those struggling to make it, are bearing the cost†, Rep. Anthony Weiner said (Benjamin, 2007). â€Å"A fare hike now is the wrong choice for New York. It would hit many people who are struggling hard to make ends meet and hurt the region’s economy. [†¦] This fare hike will hit 86 percent of the riding public who use fare discounts. These include pay-per-ride bonus MetroCards and 7- and 30-day unlimited-ride passes. It’s also a double whammy for most L.I.R.R. and Metro-North commuters whose railroad fares would go up!† (Chan, 2007b) The discussed fare hike will also cause the bonuses’ decrease for riders (from 20 to 15 percent), and the discounted fare will cost $1.74 instead of $1.67 (Chan, 2007b). The problem is that New Yorkers pay more than they have to for the transport they use. â€Å"In 2005, riders paid 55 percent of the costs of running the subways and buses† (Chan, 2007b). Objectively, this is much higher that the riders in other cities pay: those in Boston do not compensate more than 29 percent of the discussed costs, and those in Philadelphia pay no more than 37 percent (Chan, 2007b). As the M.T.A reports $140 million reductions, does this mean that they will make the riders pay this amount through higher fares and tolls? Doubtlessly, the suggested fares and tolls increase will help compensate the under-financing of the MTA by the state Government, but if the decision framework remains unchanged, this compensation will actually take place for the account of the already mentioned vulnerable populations. â€Å"To rely upon utilitarianism as the moral – philosophical foundation of the case for the market creates tremendous difficulties for Catholics† (Gregg, 2004). The utilitarian desire to find the greatest good and to satisfy the masses does not meet the ethical and moral criteria of religion. Those who were taking the decision to raise the fares and tolls in New York have neglected one essential aspect in their decision making: when one looks for the means to produce the greatest pleasure for the greatest number of people, one has to perform numerous calculations and to produce the decision which satisfies everyone. From the viewpoint of moral theology, such calculations in market decision-making are simply impossible. â€Å"No person can make such an assessment without admitting a tremendous degree of ignorance about all the possible effects that might proceed from a freely chosen act† (Gregg, 2004). The MTA governors have evidently gone beyond their reasonable abilities, trying to persuade us that that the future with raised fares and tolls for everyone was better than other possible alternatives. The MTA board members view the increased tolls and fares as the means to close the gaps in MTA’s budget and to provide safe and reliable system of transportation for the New York’s citizens. However, it is not the ultimate goal for those who use public transport and belong to vulnerable layers of the city population. Conclusion The moral theology of marketplace rejects any uniform measures in defining the goals of decision making. This is why the governors should have considered the financial opportunities of those who cannot afford paying more for using public transport. The diversified structure of prices would resolve all moral and ethical issues, and would not create serious obstacles on the way towards better functioning of the city’s transportation systems. References Benjamin, E. (2007). MTA fare hike reactions (updated). Daily News. Retrieved February 17, 2008 from http://www.nydailynews.com/blogs/dailypolitics/2007/12/mta-fare-hike-reactions.html Chan, S. (2007a). Board approves subway and bus fare increase. The New York Times. Retrieved February 17, 2008 from http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/12/19/mta-board-approves-fare-and-toll-increases/index.html?hp Chan, S. (2007b). Hundreds stranded online by botched M.T.A. â€Å"Webinar†. The New York Times. Retrieved February 17, 2008 from http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/12/10/mixed-reaction-to-new-mta-fare-plan/?hp Gregg, S. (2004). Ethics and the market economy: Insights from Catholic moral theology. IEA Economic Affairs, June, pp. 4-10. How to cite New York MTA, Essay examples

Six Point Movement in Bangladesh free essay sample

After the announcement of 6 points by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1966, the then Bhashani NAP, pro-China Communist groups and Chhatra Union (Menon Group) were the first to articulate their reaction. They claimed that the 6 points were in fact the creation of American intelligence agency, CIA. Its aim was to develop rapport with the USA by creating problems for Ayub Khan. But such an explanation on the origin of 6 points was not accepted or proved by anyone later. Some people opine that the 6 points were in fact the creation of some Bangali CSP officers — Ruhul Quddus, Shamsur Rahman Khan, Ahmed Fazlur Rahman. A segment of the people are of the view that the 6 points were the joint production of intellectuals including the economics professor of Dhaka University. Alongside this, another quarter believes that the 6 points were prepared by a group of leftist politicians of India. There was another segment who used to claim that Ayub Khan used his favorite bureaucrat Altaf Gauhar to prepare the document and then handed that over to Khairul Kabir (the then General Manager of Krishi Bank). We will write a custom essay sample on Six Point Movement in Bangladesh or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page His goal was to elicit political dividends. Because of these contradictory claims and contrary views regarding the drafting of 6 points, its origin still remains unclear and shrouded in mystery. The 6 points 1. The constitution should provide for a Federation of Pakistan in its true sense based on the Lahore Resolution and the parliamentary form of government with supremacy of a Legislature directly elected on the basis of universal adult franchise. 2. The federal government should deal with only two subjects: Defence and Foreign Affairs, and all other residual subjects should be vested in the federating states. . Two separate, but freely convertible currencies for two wings should be introduced; or if this is not feasible, there should be one currency for the whole country, but effective constitutional provisions should be introduced to stop the flight of capital from East to West Pakistan. Furthermore, a separate Banking Reserve should be established and separate fiscal and monetary policy be adopted for East Pakistan. 4. Th e power of taxation and revenue collection should be vested in the federating units and the federal centre would have no such power. The federation would be entitled to a share in the state taxes to meet its expenditures. 5. There should be two separate accounts for the foreign exchange earnings of the two wings; the foreign exchange requirements of the federal government should be met by the two wings equally or in a ratio to be fixed; indigenous products should move free of duty between the two wings, and the constitution should empower the units to establish trade links with foreign countries. 6. East Pakistan should have a separate militia or paramilitary force. Six-point Programme a charter of demands enunciated by the A for removing disparity between the two wings of Pakistan and bring to an end the internal colonial rule of West Pakistan in East Bengal. The Indo-Pak War of 1965 ended with the execution of Taskent Treaty. To the old grievances of economic disparity added the complain of negligence and indifference of central government towards the defence of East Pakistan. Bangabandhu   was vocal on this issue. The leaders of the opposition parties of West Pakistan convened a national convention at Lahore on 6 February 1966 with a view to ascertain the post-Taskent political trend. Bangabandhu reached Lahore on 4 February along with the top leaders of Awami League, and the day following he placed the Six-point Charter of demand before the subject committee as the demands of the people of East Pakistan. He created pressure to include his proposal in the agenda of the conference. They rejected the proposal of Bangabandhu. On the following day the newspapers of West Pakistan published reports on the Six-point programme, and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was projected as a separatist. Consequently Sheikh Mujib abandoned the conference. The Six-point programme along with a proposal of movement for the realisation of the demands was placed before the meeting of the working committee of Awami League on 21 February 1966, and the proposal was carried out unanimously. A booklet on the Six-point Programme with introduction from Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib and Tajuddin Ahmad was published. Another booklet entitled Amader Banchar Dabi : 6-dafa Karmasuchi (Our demands for existence : 6-points Programme) was published in the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, and was distributed in the council meeting of Awami League held on 18 March 1966. Six points 1. The constitution should provide for a Federation of Pakistan in its true sense on the Lahore Resolution and the parliamentary form of government with supremacy of a Legislature directly elected on the basis of universal adult franchise. 2. The federal government should deal with only two subjects : Defence and Foreign Affairs, and all other residuary subjects shall be vested in the federating states. 3. Two separate, but freely convertible currencies for two wings should be introduced ; or if this is not feasible, there should be one currency for the whole country, but effective constitutional provisions should be introduced to stop the flight of capital from East to West Pakistan. Furthermore, a separate Banking Reserve should be established and separate fiscal and monetary policy be adopted for East Pakistan. 4. The power of taxation and revenue collection shall be vested in the federating units and the federal centre will have no such power. The federation will be entitled to a share in the state taxes to meet its expenditures. 5. There should be two separate accounts for the foreign exchange earnings of the two wings ; the foreign exchange requirements of the federal government should be met by the two wings equally or in a ratio to be fixed; indigenous products should move free of duty between the two wings, and the constitution should empower the units to establish trade links with foreign countries. . East Pakistan should have a separate militia or paramilitary force. The opposition leaders of West Pakistan looked at Mujibs Six-point Programme as a device to disband Pakistan, and hence they outright rejected his proposal. The Ayub government arrested him and put him on trial what is known as AGARTALA CONSPIRACY CASE. The case led to widespread agitation in East Pakistan culminating in t he mass uprising of early 1969. Under public pressure, government was forced to release him unconditionally on 22 February 1969. The Awami League sought public mandate in favour of the six point programme in the general elections of 1970 in which Mujib received the absolute mandate from the people of East Pakistan in favour of his six point. But Zulfiqar Ali Bhuttu refused to join the session of the National Assembly scheduled to be held on 3 March 1971 unless a settlement was reached between the two leaders beforehand. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and his party sat in a protracted dialogue from 15 March 1971. The dialogue failed to produce any positive result. The army crackdown of 25 March sealed the fate of the six point including the fate of Pakistan. [Ashfaq Hossain] The Significance of the Six-Point Movement and its Impact on Bangladesh’s Struggle for Freedom and Self-determination Introduction: The historic Six-Point movement in 1966 was the turning point in Bangladesh’s quest for greater autonomy and self-determination from Pakistan’s colonial domination. The six-point demand has been widely credited as the ‘charter of freedom’ in the history of Bangladesh’s struggle for freedom and independence. The six-point plan had envisaged, among other things, a full-blown federal form of Government based on the 1940 Lahore Resolution, a parliamentary system of government directly elected by the people on the basis of adult franchise, two separate currencies or two reserve banks for the two wings of Pakistan, and a para-military force for East Pakistan. The spectacular success of the six-point movement in 1966 had prompted the ruling coterie of Pakistan to discredit the organizers of this movement. Although Ayub Khan’s diabolical regime had used various brutal punitive measures against the proponents, organizers and supporters of the six-point formula, this historic movement had seriously impacted and conditioned the subsequent political development in Pakistan. The main purpose of this paper is to assess the significance of the six-point movement and its impact on Bangladesh’s struggle for freedom and self-determination. Once the main contents of the six-point plan are summarized, the nature, magnitude, and impact of the six-point movement will be appraised. Aimed at substantiating and validating my own observations about the magnitude and impact of the six-point movement, some scholarly observations will be cited. Finally, some concluding remarks will be made. The Six-Point Plan: the Main Elements Sheikh Mujibur Rhaman, the then General Secretary of the East Pakistan Awami League (EPAL), had personally submitted the six-point program to the subject-matter committee of the All-Party Meeting of the opposition political parties of the then Pakistan in Lahore on February 5, 1966. Based on his â€Å"6-Point Formula: Our Right to Live† [March 23, 1966], the chief demands and themes of the historic six-point plan are being summarized as follows: Point 1: â€Å"The Constitution should provide for a Federation of Pakistan in its true sense on the basis of [1940] Lahore Resolution, and Parliamentary form of Government with supremacy of legislature directly elected on the basis of universal adult franchise. † Point 2: The Federal Government of Pakistan â€Å"shall deal with only two subjects, viz. defense and Foreign Affairs, and all other residuary subjects shall vest in the federating states. † Point 3: â€Å"Two separate but freely convertible currencies for two wings [of Pakistan] should be introduced;† or if this is not feasible, there should be one currency for the whole country, but effective constitutional provisions should be introduced to stop the flight of capital from East to West Pakistan. Furthermore, a separate Banking Rese rve should be established and separate fiscal and monetary policy to be adopted for East Pakistan. Point 4: The power of taxation and revenue collection shall be vested in the â€Å"federating units and the Federal Centre will have no such power. † However, the Federation will be entitled to have a share in the state taxes to meet its expenditures. â€Å"The Consolidated Federal Fund shall come out of a levy of certain percentage of all state taxes. † Point 5: There should be two separate accounts for the foreign exchange earnings of the two wings with clear assurance that â€Å"earnings of East Pakistan shall be under the control of East Pakistan Government and that of West Pakistan under the control of West Pakistan Government. And the â€Å"foreign exchange requirements of the Federal Government [of Pakistan] should be met by the two wings equally or in a ratio to be fixed. The indigenous products should move free of duty between the two wings. † The Constitution should â€Å"empower the units [provinces] to establish trade and commercial relations with, set up trade missions in and enter into agreements with foreign countries. † Point 6: East Pakistan should have a separate â€Å"militia† or â€Å"para-military† force. Immediate Reactions of the Pakistani Political Leaders to the Six-Point Plan Instead of endorsing Sheikh Mujib’s legitimate six-point-based demand for â€Å"maximum† provincial autonomy, the mainstream leaders of the so-called opposition parties for establishing democracy in Pakistan were not even willing to include his proposal in the official agenda of the conference for initiating discussion on the merits or demerits of the of the proposed six-point demands. In fact, no West Pakistani political leaders (not even Nawabzada Nasarullah Khan, the President of the then All-Pakistan Awami League) were willing to lend any support to Sheikh Mujib’s clarion call for maximum provincial autonomy based on the proposed six-point program. It is also really appalling to recapitulate even after forty long years that the non-Awami League delegates from the then East Pakistan did not endorse the six-point demand. Like their West-Pakistani counterparts, Bengali speaking renegades had also smelled an element of â€Å"secession† or â€Å"disintegration† of Pakistan in the six-point program. In fact, Sheikh Mujib’s six-point demand could not be pried out of the â€Å"subject-matter committee† of that so-called All-party conference. Rather, the proposed six-point anchored proposal for maximum provincial autonomy had received frontal attacks from the mainstream ruling elite of Pakistan. The veteran West Pakistani political stalwarts, in conjunction with their cohorts from the then East Pakistan, had started a slanderous propaganda campaign against Sheikh Mujibur Rahman the chief architect and proponent of the six-point charter even though most of those instant criticisms of the roposed six-point program were characterized by blatant falsehoods, conjectures, distortions, and innuendoes. Yet Sheikh Mujibur Rahman refused to be blackmailed or intimidated by those critics. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s Immediate Response to the Critics In a press conference at Lahore on February 10, 1966, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman had pointed out the uselessness and irrelevance of the All-Party Conference. He had clearly articulated that the question of demanding genuine â€Å"provincial autonomy† based on the proposed six-point program should not be misconstrued or dismissed as â€Å"provincialism. † He underscored that the proposed six-point demand was not designed to harm the common people of West Pakistan. He had pointed out that the 17-day war between Pakistan and India (1965) made it crystal clear to the â€Å"East Pakistanis† that the defense of East Pakistan couldn’t be contingent upon the mercy or courtesy of West Pakistan. He reminded the audience that instead of relying on West Pakistan for its own defense a distant land located one thousand miles away, East Pakistan should be made self-sufficient for the purpose of defending itself from external aggression. He also made it abundantly clear that his six-point plan for â€Å"maximum† provincial autonomy reflected the long-standing demands of the people of East Pakistan. On his return from Lahore to Dhaka on February 11, 1966, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman had provided further clarification on his six-point demands in a press conference. He explained why he had disassociated himself from the All-Party conference in Lahore. He had clearly stated that the delegates from East Pakistan Awami League (EPAL) had rejected not only the proposals passed by the All-Party Conference but also severed all ties with the disgruntled leaders of this so-called conference of the opposition parties. He said that it was not at all possible for him or his party to â€Å"betray the genuine interests† of the aggrieved and deprived people of East Pakistan. He emphasized that the immediate adoption and implementation of his six-point demand â€Å"will be conducive to foster durable relationship between two provinces of Pakistan. † In a press conference on February 14, 1966, he reiterated that the â€Å"the question of autonomy appears to be more important for East Pakistan after the 17-day war between Pakistan and India. The time is ripe for making East Pakistan self-sufficient in all respects. † Reaction of Ayub Khan’s Dictatorial Regime to the Six-Point Plan Immediately after the provincial autonomy plan based on the six-point formula was unveiled by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman at the Lahore conference of opposition political parties in early February, 1966, the military autocracy of the self-declared Field Marshal Ayub Khan was quick to denounce it as a separatist or secessionist move. Aimed at browbeating the dedicated champions of greater provincial autonomy, Ayub Khan, the autocratic President of the then Islamic Republic of Pakistan, had started discrediting both the message and the messenger of the six-point program. Appearing in the final session of the Pakistan (Convention) Muslim League in Dhaka on March 21,1966 (of course being fully attired in the army General’s khaki uniform with full display of all of his regalia and medallions), the self-declared President of the then Pakistan had condemned the six-point based plan for maximum provincial autonomy in the harshest possible terms. Characterizing the six-point formula for provincial autonomy as a demand for â€Å"greater sovereign Bengal,† Ayub Khan had claimed that such a plan would put the â€Å"Bengali Muslims† under the permanent domination of the â€Å"caste Hindus† of neighboring West Bengal. Comparing the â€Å"prevailing situation† in Pakistan [as of March, 1966] with the volatile situation that had existed in the USA before the outbreak of a prolonged Civil War in early 1860s, the self-serving President of Pakistan also arrogated himself by saying that the nation might have to face a â€Å"civil war† if such were forced upon â€Å"him† by the â€Å"secessionists. † He had even threatened the â€Å"autonomists† and â€Å"secessionists† with â€Å"dire consequences† if they failed to shun the idea of six-point based movement for provincial autonomy. He had also the audacity to underscore that the â€Å"language of weapons† would be ruthlessly employed for exterminating the â€Å"secessionist elements from Pakistan. † Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the flamboyant Foreign Minister of Pakistan, had openly challenged Sheikh Mujibur Rahman to a public debate on the strengths and weaknesses of the proposed six-point plan at Paltan Maidan in Dhaka. To the chagrin of the Ayub regime, Tajuddin Ahmed, number 2 person in the then Awami League, took up the challenge on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Unfortunately, it was Z. A. Bhutto who did not show up for debate! Abdul Monem Khan, the then infamous Governor of East Pakistan, had publicly stated that â€Å"as long as I remain Governor of this province (East Pakistan), I would see to it that Sheikh Mujibur Rahman remains in jail. † Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Launches the Six-Point Movement In response to such false accusations and vile threats, a fearless Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was quick to respond. In a mammoth public gathering at Paltan Maidan, he thundered: â€Å"No amount of naked threats can deviate the deprived Bangalees from their demand for provincial autonomy based on their six-point demands. The greatest champion of Bangalees’ rights for self-determination, along with top leaders of the Awami League, kept on addressing numerous public meetings in the nooks and corners of the then East Pakistan. Without wasting a moment, the entire Awami League and the East Pakistan Students’ League (EPSL), its student front, were geared toward mobilizing and motivating the general mass es in favor of demanding self-government and autonomy based on the six-point program. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman had presented not only the bold proposal for â€Å"maximum provincial autonomy† but he also launched a viable mass movement (which he himself led till he was put in jail on May 9, 1966) for popularizing and mobilizing support for the six-point program. After proposing his historic six-point program, he had actually invested all of his energies and resources in disseminating the fundamental message of â€Å"maximum autonomy† for East Pakistan. He started articulating both the rationale and justification for proposing â€Å"maximum provincial autonomy† based on his six-point plan. However, before launching a full-fledged mass movement for realizing his six-point demands, Sheikh Mujib had initiated some strategic intra-party measures. The Council Session of the East Pakistan Awami League (EPAL) met on March 18, 19, 20, 1966, and that council session had also restructured the working Committee of the party. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and Tajuddin Ahmed were unanimously elected the President and General Secretary respectively of the newly revamped Awami League. The proposed six-point program was also unanimously endorsed by that historic council session for realizing maximum provincial autonomy for the then East Pakistan. To the dismay of Pakistan’s ruling coterie, the six-point program had generated a great deal of enthusiasm among the people of the then East Pakistan. As noted by Dr. Talukder Maniruzzaman: â€Å"To say that this [six-point] programme evoked tremendous enthusiasm among the people of East Bengal would be an understatement. Encouraged by overwhelming popular support, Sheikh Mujib convened a meeting of the EPAL Council [March 18-20, 1966] at which his [Six-Point] programme was unanimously approved and he was elected President of the [Awami League] party. With a phalanx of organizers from the Student’s League, Sheikh Mujib then launched a vigorous campaign. For about three months (from mid-February to mid-May), the urban centers of East Bengal seemed to be in the grip of a ‘mass revolution,’ prompting the Central Government to arrest Sheikh Mujib and his chief lieutenants (Tajuddin Ahmed, Khandokar Mustaq Ahmed, Mansoor Ali, Zahur Ahmed Chowdhury, and others) under the [infamous] Defense of Pakistan Rules and put down a complete general strike in Dacca (June 7, 1966) by killing 13 participating strikers† [Talukder Maniruzzaman, The Bangladesh Revolution and Its Aftermath, UPL, 1988. P. 25]. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s demand for â€Å"maximum autonomy† based on his six-point formula seems to have shaken the foundation of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The six-point plan had exposed the fact that the real intention of Pakistan’s ruling elite was to â€Å"strengthen† the Punjabi-Mohajir dominated Central Government. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman repeatedly said in several public meetings that that the people of Pakistan had always desired a â€Å"strong Pakistan,† not a â€Å"strong Central Government. The entire ruling establishment of Pakistan was alarmed, and obviously, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the chief proponent of the six-point program, had become the main target of negative publicity. He had to endure various virulent forms of harassment, intimidation, and fraudulent cases. Instead of fairly addressing the legitimate grievances and demands of the neglected eastern province of Pakistan, the power elite took a deliberate decision to s uppress the quest for maximum provincial autonomy through the use of colonial types of repressive methods and procedures.